Canada's population experienced a historic milestone in 2025, marking the first annual decline in decades according to Statistics Canada. Preliminary estimates reveal a net loss of approximately 102,436 people over the year, ending with a total population of 41,472,081 on January 1, 2026. This shift ends a long streak of uninterrupted growth driven by immigration, primarily from non-permanent residents (NPRs), and signals a new era shaped by deliberate policy adjustments.

The decline accelerated in the second half of the year, with quarterly drops in Q3 (-76,068 people, -0.2%) and Q4 (-103,504 people, -0.2%). While the first half saw modest gains of +77,136, the latter half posted a stark reversal of -179,572. This phenomenon, unseen since the post-World War II period around 1946, underscores the profound impact of recent immigration reforms.

Breaking Down the Quarterly Data

Statistics Canada's quarterly estimates paint a clear picture of the reversal. Starting January 1, 2025, at around 41.57 million, the population peaked at 41.65 million by the end of Q3 before plummeting. Key figures include:

This table highlights how early gains evaporated, culminating in consecutive negative quarters—the first such occurrence in modern records.

Non-Permanent Residents: The Primary Driver

Non-permanent residents—holders of study permits, work permits, asylum claims, and their families—were the engine of Canada's recent population boom, peaking at over 3.1 million (7.6% of total) in late 2024. Their sharp exodus fueled the 2025 decline: -176,479 in Q3 and -171,296 in Q4, totaling over 347,000 fewer NPRs annually. Study permit holders bore the brunt, dropping due to federal caps limiting new approvals to 360,000 in 2024 and further reductions in 2025.

By January 1, 2026, NPRs numbered 2,676,441 (down from 3.15 million on October 1, 2025), comprising 6.5% of the population—a reversal from 7.3% mid-year. Outflows exceeded inflows as permits expired without renewal, exacerbated by policy tightening on spousal work permits and post-graduation extensions.Statistics Canada's Q4 report attributes this directly to evolving federal migration strategies.

Government Policies Behind the Shift

The decline stems from Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada's (IRCC) aggressive reforms starting 2024. Facing housing shortages, inflated rents, and strained services, the government imposed a 35% cap on study permits for 2024 (360,000 approvals), tightened to 10% growth in 2025 amid public backlash. Work permits for students' spouses were curtailed, and low-wage temporary foreign worker programs scrutinized.

Prime Minister's announcement in October 2024 targeted NPRs at under 5% of population by 2026, reducing temporary volumes from 673,650 in 2025 projections. Permanent resident targets held steady at 395,000 for 2025 but couldn't offset NPR exodus. Provincial allocation letters further distributed caps, hitting Ontario (60% of intl students) hardest.IRCC's 2025-2027 Levels Plan outlines this pivot toward sustainable growth.

Timeline: Caps announced Jan 2024, implemented Sep 2024; Q1 2025 applications plunged 65%; by mid-2025, intl arrivals down 60% YoY.

Negative Natural Increase Compounds the Trend

Beyond migration, Canada's fertility rate languished at 1.33 births per woman in 2025—well below replacement (2.1). Natural increase turned negative in Q4 (-781: 88,112 births vs. 88,893 deaths), a rare occurrence reflecting aging demographics (20% over 65). International migration had masked this for years; now exposed, it amplifies decline risks absent policy reversal.

Deaths rose with boomers aging, births fell amid economic pressures and delayed childbearing. Provinces like Newfoundland (-0.7% annual) and Nova Scotia saw compounded effects.

Provincial Disparities: Urban Centers Hit Hardest

• Ontario: -0.3% Q4, lost 107k NPRs Q3; intl students ~50% revenue drop projected.
• British Columbia: -0.4% Q4, -26k NPRs Q3; Vancouver housing strained less now.
• Quebec: -0.3%, protected by French requirements but still NPR dip.
• Alberta: +0.1% Q4, net interprovincial gain.
• Atlantic Provinces: Mixed, some first declines in years.

Urban metros like Toronto, Vancouver bore 70% NPR losses; prairies stable via domestic migration.

Economic Ramifications: Balancing Act

GDP growth slowed to 1.7% in 2025, per estimates, as NPR-driven consumption waned. Yet per capita GDP may rise 1-2%, easing services inflation. Labor shortages loom in construction, healthcare; youth unemployment paradoxically high at 12%. Universities face $1-2B revenue shortfalls from intl tuition (20-40% dependency for colleges), prompting cuts.Maclean's reports college enrollment halved.

Positive: Housing vacancy up 2%, rents stabilizing; fiscal relief as fewer services needed short-term.

Housing and Infrastructure: A Silver Lining?

NPR influx exacerbated Canada's housing crunch (vacancy <1%, rents +10% YoY 2023-24). Decline eases pressure: CMHC forecasts +1.5% vacancy 2026, rent growth halved. But construction slows sans migrant labor, delaying supply ramp-up.

Future Projections and Policy Pathways

StatCan projects low growth 0.5-1% annually to 2030 if NPR stabilize at 5%; fertility unchanged risks further shrinkage post-2040. IRCC eyes 340k PRs 2027, focusing skilled workers. Experts urge fertility incentives, housing acceleration for sustainability.

Stakeholders: Economists warn GDP drag; provinces seek cap exemptions; unis lobby permit hikes.

Photo by British Library on Unsplash

This demographic pivot challenges Canada's growth model, demanding balanced reforms for prosperity amid constraints.